Success Amazon Tutorial College

Success Amazon Tutorial College
Organic Chemistry (1)

Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of compounds of Carbon.

Properties of Carbon

1. The exceptional ability of Carbon atoms to catenate i.e. to combine with one another to form straight chains, branched chains or ring compounds containing many atoms.

2. The ease with which Carbon combines with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the halogens.

3. The ability of Carbon to form single, double or triple covalent bonds.

4. Different arrangement of the same atoms within a molecule produces a variety of compounds.

Characteristics of Organic Compounds

1. Organic Compounds are mostly covalent. They are stable because of the Carbon-Carbon bonds.

2. Most organic compounds are non-polar, unless the compounds consist of very electronegative elements like chlorine or the hydroxyl group.

3. Organic compounds are generally soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene or ether.

4. They are generally insoluble in water, except in cases where the compound contains the hydroxyl group (OH).

5. Organic compounds generally have low melting and boiling points compared to inorganic compounds.

6. Most organic compounds are thermally unstable, decomposing into simpler molecules when heated to temperatures above 500°C.

7. Most organic compounds are inflammable and burn exothermically in a plentiful supply of air to yield Carbon (IV) oxide and water.

8. Reactions involving organic compounds tend to be much slower than the ionic reactions in inorganic chemistry.

Terminologies in Organic Chemistry

Homologous Series

A homologous series is a family of organic compounds which follows a regular structural pattern in which each successive member differs in its molecular formula by CH₂ group or relative molecular mass of 14 a.m.u. (atomic mass units).

The simplest series is the alkane.
Alkanes are a series of hydrocarbons with a general molecular formula of CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ where n is a whole number with a value of one or more.
Each individual member of a homologous series is referred to as a homologue.
Other homologous series include:
• alkenes, CₙH₂ₙ
• alkynes, CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
• alkanols, CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH
• alkanoic or carboxylic acids, CₙH₂ₙ₊₁COOH

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

1. All members of the series share a general molecular formula e.g. CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ for the alkanes.

2. Each successive member in a series differ in molecular formula by the addition of a –CH₂ group or relative molecular mass of 14 a.m.u.

3. Chemical properties of the members are similar but with a gradual variation along the series.

4. All members can be prepared by the same general methods.

5. The physical properties change gradually as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases.

(II) Alkyl Group

This includes the univalent group derived from the alkanes by the loss of a hydrogen atom, e.g. methyl group (–CH₃).

Alkyl group has a general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₁ and is named after the parent alkane by replacing "ane" with "yl".
The alkyl group is given the symbol "R".

Examples:
• Methyl — CH₃
• Ethyl — C₂H₅
• Propyl — C₃H₇
• Butyl — C₄H₉
• Pentyl — C₅H₁₁

(III) Functional Groups

A functional group is an atom, a radical, or a bond common to a homologous series and which determines the main chemical properties of the series.
The functional group for:
​alkenes (=)
​alkynes (≡)
​alkanols (-OH)
​carboxylic (-COOH)
​alkanoates (-COO)
​alkanals (-CHO)
​alkanones (-CO)
​primary amines (-NH₂)

Effect of the Alkyl and Functional Group

The functional group determines the chemical properties of a compound, while the alkyl group affects the physical properties of a compound.

Saturated & Unsaturated Compounds

Organic compounds containing atoms joined only by single covalent bonds are said to be saturated, e.g. the alkanes.

Unsaturated Compounds

Compounds that contain Carbon atoms joined by double or triple covalent bonds are said to be unsaturated, e.g. alkenes and alkynes.

Formulae of Organic Compounds

1. Empirical Formula:
This is the simplest formula of a compound. It indicates the relative number of each kind of atom present in a molecule of a substance.

2. Molecular Formula:
This is a more useful formula than the empirical formula. It indicates the actual number of each kind of atoms in a molecule of a substance.

Molecular formula = Empirical formula × n

III. Structural Formula: is the more informative Formula used in Organic Chemistry.

The IUPAC Nomenclature for Aliphatic Compounds
​The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) put forward a system of naming which relates the name of the compound to its molecular structure.
​The IUPAC Convention is to number all the carbon atoms in the longest chain starting from the end which is the closest to the branch chain or the substituent.

CH₃ – CH₂ – CH = CH₂

Not But-3-ene (The handwritten structure shows 4 carbons and a double bond, which should be But-1-ene, so I'm transcribing what I see written, but noting the likely error/typo in the original)

Rules Guiding the IUPAC Nomenclature

1. Select the longest continuous carbon chain as the root hydrocarbon and name it according to the number of carbon atom it contains.

2. Number the carbon atoms in the root hydrocarbon from the end which will give the lowest number to the substituents. The halogens are indicated by the prefixes: Fluoro–F, Chloro–Cl, Bromo–Br, and Iodo–I.

3. If the same substituent is present two or more times in a molecule, the number of this substituent is indicated by a prefix: di–(2), tri–(3), tetra–(4), etc.

4. If there is more than one type of substituent in the molecule, the substituents are named according to alphabetic order but where there are mixed substituents the inorganic are named first.
Examples:
1. CH₃ – CH₂ – C ≡ CH
But-1-yne

2. ClCH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂OH
1-chlorobutan-4-ol
(This should be 1-chlorobutan-4-ol or 4-chlorobutan-1-ol depending on the numbering, but 1-chlorobutan-4-ol is written).

2. CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH(CH₃) – C(Br)(Cl) – CH₃

3-bromo, 2-dichloro, 4-methylhexane

(The written name is 3-bromo, 2-dichloro, 4-methylhexane but the substituents are likely at positions 2 and 3 on a 6-carbon chain).

Isomerism

Isomerism is the occurrence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.

Geometric Isomerism

Geometric isomerism is the existence of compounds with the same molecular formula, but are not identical because of different spatial arrangement of the component atoms. For instance, there are two geometric isomers of but-2-ene:

cis-but-2-ene

trans-but-2-ene

Four Reactions in Organic Chemistry

1. Substitution reaction

2. Addition reaction

3. Polymerization reaction

4. Condensation reaction

1. Substitution Reaction

A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule is replaced by another atom or group.

Types of Substitution
(a) Nucleophilic substitution – e.g., attack of a nucleophile as a reactant; hydrolysis of chloroalkane.

(b) Electrophilic substitution – e.g., attack of an electrophile to get substitution; e.g., nitration of nitrobenzene.

(c) Free radical substitution – where a free radical is the attacking substituent; e.g., halogenation of alkane to form haloalkane.

2. Addition Reaction:
​Addition Reaction is a reaction in which two molecules combine to yield a single molecule product.

​3. Polymerization and Condensation Polymerization is the combination of two or more simple molecules to form a Complex molecules. The simple molecules are called monomers or large molecules is called polymer.
Polymerization is the process that takes place when a single substance (monomer) gives products having the same empirical formula, but different molecular weight, each of these being a multiple of that of the monomer.

​4. Condensation:
​This is a process whereby two or more elements join together to form a new element with the elimination of a small molecule.

​5. Condensation Polymerization:
​Condensation Polymerization is the process whereby two or more non-identical monomers link together to form the polymer with the elimination of a small molecule.

Polymer and Polymorphism
What is a Polymer?
​A Polymer is a compound made up of large or very large (macromolecules) molecules formed by condensation of a number of similar molecules (monomers) in a linear fashion (Linear Polymers) or in a net-like structure (Cross-linked Polymers).

​What is Polymorphism?
​Polymorphism is the ability of certain chemical substances to exist in more than one physical form. The existence of two forms is called dimorphism.

Success Amazon Tutorial College
Government Study Kit 8

SECTION A: MULTIPLE-CHOICE / SHORT ANSWER (1–30)

1. What are the three organs of government?

Ans: Executive, Legislature, Judiciary.

2. Who propounded the theory of separation of powers?

Ans: Montesquieu.

3. The rule of law is associated with which scholar?

Ans: A. V. Dicey.

4. The primary function of the legislature is _______.

Ans: Law making.

5. The executive arm of government is responsible for _______.

Ans: Implementing laws and policies.

6. The judiciary performs the function of _______.

Ans: Interpreting laws / delivering justice.

7. What is federalism?

Ans: A system where power is divided between central and state governments.

8. Define a constitution.

Ans: The fundamental law that guides the structure and powers of government.

9. A constitution that can be easily amended is called ________.

Ans: A flexible constitution.

10. A government that concentrates power at the centre is a ______ system.

Ans: Unitary system.

11. What is a bicameral legislature?

Ans: A legislature with two chambers (e.g., Senate and House).

12. The doctrine of checks and balances means _______.

Ans: Each organ limits the powers of the others.

13. In a parliamentary system, who is the head of government?

Ans: The Prime Minister.

14. In a presidential system, the head of state is the ______.

Ans: President.

15. What is delegated legislation?

Ans: Laws made by bodies other than the legislature under delegated authority.

16. Define public administration.

Ans: The implementation of government policies by the civil service.

17. What is the main role of political parties?

Ans: To contest elections and form government.

18. Who conducts elections in Nigeria?

Ans: INEC.

19. What is impeachment?

Ans: A process of removing a public officer for misconduct.

20. Mention two features of democracy.

Ans: Rule of law; free and fair elections.

21. Who ensures the independence of the judiciary?

Ans: Separation of powers and secure tenure of judges.

22. What is the supremacy of the constitution?

Ans: The constitution is the highest law of the land.

23. A referendum is a form of ______ democracy.

Ans: Direct democracy.

24. The permanent arm of government is called the _______.

Ans: Civil service.

25. Mention two features of a dictatorship.

Ans: Absolute power; suppression of opposition.

26. What is the electorate?

Ans: Registered voters in an election.

27. State one reason for local government creation.

Ans: To bring government closer to the people.

28. The process of policy implementation is carried out by the ______.

Ans: Executive / Civil service.

29. What is judicial review?

Ans: Power of courts to declare actions or laws unconstitutional.

30. Which arm of government controls the national budget?

Ans: Legislature.

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SECTION B: THEORY / LONG ANSWER (31–50)

31. Explain the doctrine of separation of powers.

Ans:
It divides government into three arms—executive, legislature, judiciary—each with distinct functions and independence to prevent concentration of power.

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32. Discuss the major features of federalism.

Ans:

Written constitution

Division of powers

Supremacy of constitution

Supreme Court to settle disputes

Two levels of government

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33. Differences between parliamentary and presidential systems.

Ans:

Parliamentary: fusion of powers, PM as head of government, cabinet from parliament.

Presidential: separation of powers, president as both head of state and government, fixed tenure.

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34. State four functions of the executive.

Ans:

Implementation of laws

Conduct foreign affairs

Maintain security

Manage public services and policy

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35. Explain functions of the judiciary.

Ans:

Interpret laws

Protect rights

Resolve disputes

Conduct judicial review

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36. What are the advantages of a written constitution?

Ans:

Clarity

Protects rights

Limits government power

Easy reference

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37. Explain the importance of rule of law.

Ans:

Ensures equality

Protects rights

Prevents dictatorship

Ensures accountability

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38. What is the role of political parties in a democracy?

Ans:

Mobilize voters

Select candidates

Articulate policies

Form government

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39. Discuss three functions of the civil service.

Ans:

Policy advice

Implementation

Administrative continuity

Record keeping

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40. State five challenges of local governments in Nigeria.

Ans:

Insufficient funds

Political interference

Corruption

Poor manpower

Overdependence on state governments

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41. Explain the concept of constitutionalism.

Ans:
It means that government power must be controlled and limited by the constitution.

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42. Describe the process of law-making in Nigeria.

Ans:

First reading

Second reading

Committee stage

Report stage

Third reading

Presidential assent

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43. List four characteristics of dictatorship.

Ans:

Absolute rule

One-party system

No free elections

Human rights abuses

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44. Describe the main functions of the legislature.

Ans:

Law making

Representation

Oversight

Budget control

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45. What is bureaucracy? Explain its features.

Ans:
Bureaucracy is a structured, rule-based administrative system.
Features: hierarchy, specialization, rules, impersonality.

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46. Explain the importance of checks and balances.

Ans:
Ensures no arm becomes too powerful; promotes accountability; protects democracy.

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47. Give four reasons for creating local governments.

Ans:

Grassroots development

Administrative convenience

Public participation

Local autonomy

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48. Differentiate between a written and an unwritten constitution.

Ans:

Written: single document, clear, rigid.

Unwritten: scattered sources, flexible, based on customs.

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49. Explain the term “public corporation” and state its purpose.

Ans:
Government-owned enterprise created by law to provide essential services (e.g., water, transport).

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50. Discuss the importance of political culture.

Ans:

Shapes citizens’ behavior

Influences stability

Affects participation

Guides political expectations